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An Executive Guide to Metro Denver Transit-Oriented District – TOD – Success

 

OPENING REMARKS | PHASE II - EXECTUTIVE SUMMARY | PHASE I - THE INVASION OF THE TRUFFLES
APPENDIX A | APPENDIX B | REFERENCES

STAR Summary
Situation: Metro Denver possesses the holy grail of community planning and development, a voter-approved $5 billion investment in 50-plus light rail stations, each with transit-oriented district potential.

Task: The race is on! Light rail stations are being planned and will be built by the Regional Transportation District in 20-plus jurisdictions. The task is mighty: to ensure that station construction coincides with jurisdictional visions and plans on a very tight timeframe.

Action: The 20-plus jurisdictions that will house metro Denver’s 50-plus new light rail stations must share a regional vision while also executing individual station strategies that satisfy market demand and support community goals. One major question must be answered: Who will lead that charge?

Results: If we succeed, we will have achieved a feat never before undertaken by anyone, anywhere. Simultaneously, each of the 20-plus local jurisdictions and their various public/private partners will have to manage an independent dynamic development strategy directly involving the neighborhoods surrounding each station.

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opening remarks
ARE YOU READY FOR THE INVASION OF THE TRUFFLEs?
The invasion of the TRUFFLEs has begun.

TRUFFLEs are The Reconstituted Urban Family Forming Links Everywhere. TRUFFLEs are singles, couples without children, seniors and minorities. Collectively, they represent the fastest growing segment of U.S. households. And, they account for the vast majority (80%) of people attracted to transit-oriented districts (TODs). And, if you are to understand and capitalize on TOD in the short term – and development of any kind in the long term – you need to get to know this formidable group that already is sweeping over America and the world.

This study will further acquaint you with the significant demographic shift that is taking place in metro Denver, around the country and the world. You will learn a great deal more about the TRUFFLEs beginning on page 15.

The primary focus of this study, though, is the metro Denver area and its 50-some voter-approved TODs, a never-before-seen development opportunity that poses one of the greatest community communications challenges ever seen anywhere. Central to that challenge is the invasion
of the TRUFFLEs.

Lying between the community that we live in today and the one that will accommodate us and the TRUFFLES is a significant chasm, which we have entitled “The Community Development Gap.”

Metro voters in the fall of 2004 elected to plant a $5 billion seed that in a few short years will sprout and begin to inch its way across the region – reaching its full 100-plus mile combined length in less than 12 years. As this transportation vine grows, 50-plus transit-oriented districts simultaneously will blossom and, if the people of this region carefully cultivate them, will unfurl an economic and social opportunity never before witnessed on the planet.

Those who were inspired to vote for FasTracks, and many of those who were not, will need to dig in soon and participate in the care and feeding of this sizeable metro investment – if we as a region are to harvest the bounty of its full potential.

Who stands to gain?

You do.

Whether you are a mayor, a council person, a community development expert, an investor, a developer, a jet-setter, a cash-strapped commuter, an aging senior, a single person, a newly married one, a single parent or a soon-to-be-divorced one, a handicapped individual, an immigrant or a native, you should care deeply about what comes next.

If this blossoming opportunity were to fail, we all stand to lose, as the pages of this report will reveal.

This study was commissioned by PEAK Public Relations early in 2005, shortly after the historic $5 billion investment in a metro light rail network was approved. With that vote, the invasion of the TRUFFLEs in our region was affirmed, as the pages of this report will reveal.

At the same time, the variables of the metro Denver community development equation were dramatically altered.

This study poses potent new conclusions gleaned from scores of secondary sources and 30 high-level formatted interviews with TOD thought leaders from across metro Denver, the nation and the world. We also conducted many informal discussions with leaders from Civic Results, Metro Denver Economic Development Council, Development Research Partners, Denver Regional Council of Governments (DRCOG), various economic development and governmental agencies, developers and members
of the community.

The Invasion of the TRUFFLEs was conducted in two phases and administered by our trusted and deeply valued colleague Tom Boone, principal, Market InfoMania. As you will read in his executive summary, Phase II of this report, which follows these opening remarks, there are common concerns that should be shared by those looking at developing TODs in metro Denver. Phase I of this two-part report with an introduction by Peter Kenney and John Parr of Civic Results, is a reader’s digest distillation of a mountain of information that has been published on the topic of TODs and the Invasion of the TRUFFLEs, which clearly has begun.

The coming communications challenge in tod is formidable
TRUFFLEs are a different breed of animal and, if you are in the hunt for future development success – anywhere – you need to be hot on their trail. But, as you will discover in this report, their most fertile ground is in TODs.

As one analyzes the emerging TOD development situation in metro Denver from a PR perspective it becomes readily apparent that winning the communications game will involve engaging metro constituencies at a level never experienced before in this region. Dense urban development is central to TOD success and quite frankly, in order to accomplish success, we have our work cut out for us.

The downside of losing the communications game with the community is huge, as evidenced time and again in the pages of this report. However, those who succeed in the communications process have a great deal to gain.

This study consolidates a mountain of knowledge related to what is known worldwide about TOD success and failure. It is a quick and essential read for those who wish to understand, appreciate and tackle the challenges that lie ahead in winning the communications game, as it relates to TOD development in metro Denver and elsewhere.

tods are nothing more than pops
Metro Denver is about to pop. We don’t know exactly where or how, but a growing number of POPs, People Oriented Places, lie in our future. TRUFFLEs, the coming dominant worldwide demographic, deeply desire POPs and they will represent 80% of the first settlers in our 50-some metro Denver TODs.

Our most successful TODs will be nothing more than people oriented places.

As Frank Gray, the highly respected community planning expert who recently departed metro Denver for Scottsdale said in interviewing for this study: “It’s not about rail; it’s about people.” Gray points out that a T.O.D. is nothing more than a people oriented place, a P.O.P. “You should be able to remove the rail and the place will still work,” he said.

Gray went on to point out that it’s all about moving people.

“Connectivity to the surrounding community is the key,” he said.

Rail is a factor, but so are sidewalks and roads. The secret to success in TODs and POPs lies in using a combination of transportation methods concurrently to achieve a place where people want to be.

In planning the redevelopment of its Platte River Valley, The Commons, visionary Denver planners even considered the role of kayaks in transporting people and creating a strong sense of place. In Lakewood leaders are looking at how to move people from the redeveloped Denver Federal Center to The Gateway, its new downtown district and surrounding environments, including Belmar and redeveloping Colfax Avenue.

But, many community developers and planners already are perplexed by what to do to accommodate this new breed of consuming urban dwellers.

For some, they pose a problem no less frustrating than the furry little tribbles that once invaded the Starship Enterprise and perplexed Captain James T. Kirk and his highly intelligent crew of space travelers. If you have an interest in metro Denver’s TODs, please consider this report, The Invasion of the TRUFFLEs, as your hitchhiker’s guide to the galaxy of opportunity that exists for those wise enough to embrace the future.

As you will discover in The Invasion of the TRUFFLEs, the upside of developing dense, people-oriented places can be both fabulous and formidable, all at the same time.

it’s time to close the community development gap
One thing becomes very apparent as you put TODs under the microscope.

There is a growing gap between what planners are planning and what communities may desire. Community planning and development leaders interviewed for this study – those in metro Denver and elsewhere – agree that there is a noticeable rift between what is planned and what is “perceived to be” by the public. For many people, the Invasion of the TRUFFLEs will be a scary thing unless community leaders are able to help people understand the benefits of change FOR ALL!

COMMUNICATION IS THE KEY TO SUCCESS, as this study and common sense will conclude; so is amending outdated zoning regulations.

Therein lies PEAK PR’s interest in commissioning this study, which has required a 300-hour time investment over the past nine months. We thank every individual who contributed to the process.

For 15 years, my partner Pam Bales and I have been coaching community development related corporations, associations and government groups on how to best bridge the “Community Development Gap.”

Today, PEAK PR is genuinely excited to be a part of what first attracted my partner and I to town, the hope that one day this would be one of America’s mega-trend cities. If we can close the “Community Development Gap” that exists between tomorrow’s vision and today’s reality, we may very well become that people oriented place.

Ken Parks, APR, CEO
PEAK Public Relations
“ Your Community Development Coaches Since 1990”
303.691.1801/peakpr.com

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EXECUTIVE SMUMARY
Can we build 50+ success stories simultaneously?
In planning TOD success, one of the greatest tools that metro Denver possesses is its understanding of the nature and specifics of previous successes and failures. According to the Federal Transit Administration there are only 100 successful TODs in America out of a universe of 3,300 transit stops.

We hope to build 50-plus successful TODs simultaneously.

Between August 1 and September 13, 2005, on behalf of PEAK Public Relations, Market Infomania, Inc. conducted thirty, 60-90 minute interviews with TOD thought leaders from around the U.S. and the world.

Our purpose: to understand the lessons already learned and stimulate
a metro dialogue that will fuel future success.

Market Infomania, Inc. is a market intelligence provider that specializes
in gathering, classifying, analyzing and disseminating intelligence for operational, marketing and strategic business decision support.

What we believe we have produced in this report is a quick-read summary of the most commonly expressed opinions regarding how to develop successful TOD.


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PUT PEOPLE FIRST
The name “Transit-Oriented District” implies that TODs are fundamentally about transit. In reality, they are fundamentally about people. In the best TODs, people are everywhere 24/7 and the transit station is integrated seamlessly into the community.

The nation’s demographics are shifting quickly.

Traditional families are the minority and the quickest new growing demographic segment, TRUFFLEs, are attracted to these developments. Their needs, wants and desires must be understood and incorporated into the vision and design of TODs.

incorporate the 4ds into your pedestrian friendly design
Our research suggests that incorporating the 4 Ds – pedestrian-friendly DESIGN, DENSITY, DISTANCE to transit and DIVERSITY – is the most important critical success factor.

The 4Ds is a clever way of saying TODs must be designed for people to move about freely – gather, shop, mingle, work and play. These communities need to become activity centers or “destinations,” be accessible by all modes of transportation and provide “linkages” deep into the surrounding communities.

Everyone who gets off a train is a pedestrian, at least initially.
Where they go once they step off the train should be the primary concern of TOD designers.

If they head straight to their cars, a potent revenue and marketing opportunity is lost and a clear sense of community is inhibited.

Elected officials and planning commissions must understand that development serves people when it is designed for the human dimension.

When done correctly, TODs become formidable economic engines.

When designed in a vacuum they become boondoggles that must be redesigned and rebuilt at increasing cost.

educate local officials
The “biggest problem” that many interviewees spoke of encountering
was with misinformed elected officials who oppose or present roadblocks
due to fear that TOD won’t lead to something good.

In other cases, local jurisdictions will be enthusiastic about TODs but will not know how to make them work. Both of these problems can be overcome through education. Misinformed people need to be told and convinced of the benefits to households, to communities, to the environment and to the local economy.

The enthusiastic will need assistance with visioning and planning, but also, methods of engaging key constituencies in a meaningful and effective way.

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learn to say the “d” word
Yes, it’s about density.

But, first, and foremost, it’s about community.

Older conventional thinking – and even our gut – may tell us that people don’t like dense urban environments and that density leads to poor blighted neighborhoods.

Our research reveals that these TODs are attracting affluent, energetic, successful people.

And, they attract investment.

Property values in and around transit-oriented districts experience real estate premiums up to 100 percent higher than traditional suburban environments.

Those with a commitment to the community and staying power can afford to engage and stick with the process. Those in for a quick fix may find themselves coming up short, unless they can set up a quick flip.

leadership is critical
If metro Denver is to succeed, its leaders must step forward. Several interviewees wondered openly “Who is in charge in metro Denver?”

When asked who should lead, their answers varied and ranged from DRCOG, to RTD, to the same elected leaders who successfully led the FasTracks campaign.

Others suggested the Denver Metro Economic Development Council.

There will be a core team of foward-thinking leaders and they are emerging. Leadership must come from everywhere, including you if you live or visit or influence the evolution of transit-oriented districts.

Without dynamic collaborative leadership and the direct involvement of communities, transit-oriented districts will fail or never happen.

communicate a vision
Doing so will smooth the way to initial market acceptance and the process will stimulate the dialogue necessary to ensure success. This should happen at the regional level, the corridor level, and in the area around each individual station.

Bring the public in early to shape the vision or suffer the consequences that will follow.

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talk, travel and get in
touch with success
Nearly every interviewee suggested that the best way to learn about how to develop successful TOD is to visit the metropolitan areas of Portland, Dallas, San Francisco, San Diego, Arlington County Virginia, New Jersey and Toronto. This fall community leaders are doing just that. Led by the Metro Denver Economic Development Council and Chamber of Commerce they are visiting Dallas, one of our main contenders in economic development competitions, and also a TOD leader. DRCOG and others are sponsoring visits by leaders. But, more needs to happen. A great deal more, including TOD visits to cities and dynamic programs presented to a rapidly growing cross-section of our community.

Talk to the leadership and take the time to talk to the people who live and work in and around these communities.

Likewise, get in touch with the communities that surround your stations, inform them of what has worked elsewhere and the community downside of doing development wrong.

Remember two things: time is short and you have nothing to fear, but fear itself.

collaborate with the
community Now
Drawing lines in the sand and not getting along will only work against success. The places that have been successful have utilized strong public/public and public/private partnerships.

The importance of early community involvement in the visioning process has been widely written and talked about.

The consequences of not doing this correctly are well documented. Interviewees advise that if good public process is followed, the majority within communities will support this type of development.

success breeds success
Conventional thinking says that traditional market studies must prove demand before investment is made.

Our research reveals that investment in transit-oriented district actually stimulates demand.

This has been played out in markets around the world, from Dallas to New Jersey to Perth, Australia.

Nearly every person we spoke with said TODs were not welcome in their metropolitan areas until after the first successful TODs were built!

Once built, people either moved to them or wanted one in their community.

In New Jersey, for example, developments are springing up along the side of rail – even where there is no station – in hopes of convincing the transit agency to build a station.

In the Dallas area, communities that originally didn’t even want a station are now clamoring for their own TODs.

change your zoning codes
Yesterday’s model says that zoning should be monolithic and allow for only one type of development to occur in a given area.

Our research says that mixed-use development is an economic engine that will far surpass that of yesterday’s developments.

“Make it legal,” was a common theme expressed during our interviews.

Codes and regulations designed with suburban sprawl in mind do not allow for dense, mixed-use development.

“Develop design guidelines,” was the advise many interviewees provided.

One leader suggested that “forms-based code” be used instead of “text-based code” – an illustrative rather than written document – to make it easier for local planners to show a jurisdiction’s intent.

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design for evolution
Retail follows rooftops. Don’t expect retail to be attracted immediately – especially in areas that undergo development or redevelopment ahead of rail arriving.

Design buildings for easy conversion from residential to mixed-use as your development evolves and rail connects.

balance housing options
The people who will benefit the most from being located near transit, and those most likely to use transit, are low- to middle-income workers who interviewees referred to as “the transit dependent.”

Without a concerted effort to include workforce housing, rising real estate prices in TODs will exclude them.

One possible solution is to form strong connections with the surrounding community, providing easy modes of transportation to the station. This implies more than a “kiss and ride” drive-up design.

fund and support planning around each station
Interviewees estimate half a million dollars should be allocated to planning around each station area.

Suggestions regarding where these dollars should come from included the federal government, state government including CDOT, the bond issue itself and local jurisdictions and developers, to name a few.

Be open to change
At the vast majority of transit stations, transit agencies envision themselves as solely responsible for moving people from point A to point B. They view successful transit projects as having seas of parking lots or garages around a station.

Interviewees told us that the mission of the 21st century transit agency needs to include improving people’s quality of life, actively supporting livable, walk-able and sustainable communities.

If we do this, then we will benefit from increased ridership and more efficient, bi-directional flows.

Conventional thinking says that people want the flexibility that the automobile provides. In reality, people all over the world – including car loving U.S. citizens – are gladly giving up their dependence on the automobile and enjoying the flexibility that living in and around transit-oriented districts provide.

Recent events and rapidly rising prices should support that trend.

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conclusion: we need a clear metro vision and ongoing public dialogue
Metro Denver voters made it clear in 2004 that they want this to become a world-class transit metropolis.

The ball is now in the court of metro leaders.

We need to inform the public about the upside of sound TOD developments and the downfalls associated with haphazard or ill-conceived ones.

If our transit-oriented stations are to become lively, vibrant and primary activity centers, then we need to engage the metro area at a level that currently does not exist.

We need to close the Community Development Gap and engage the public fully in the fact that in order for their mandate to succeed, they must realize and support the changes that are necessary.

We believe that metro Denver may very well succeed in this vital endeavor. Our hope is that this study and report will stimulate the quick dialogue that now must ensue.

Tom Boone, Principal
Market InfoMania, Inc.
303.972.5131

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Phase II Interviewees
Peter Albert, Bay Area Rapid Transit
Gwen Anderson, TOD consultant
G.B. Arrington, PB PlaceMaking
Vivian Baker, New Jersey Transit
Susan Bell, Arlington County Community Planning, Housing
and Development
Nancy Brigado, City of San Diego Planning Department
Don Carter, Urban Design Associates
Tony Chacon, City of Westminster
Becky Clark, City of Lakewood
Robert Dunphy, Urban Land Institute
Stanton Eckstut, Ehrenkrantz Eckstut & Kuhn Architects
Jan Gehl, Gehl Architects, Copenhagen, Denmark
Frank Gray, Scottsdale, AZ
Marc Guichard, TOD Implementation Program, Portland
Jim Hamre, Arlington Transit
Professor Emeritus Spense Havlick, University of Colorado
Ken Hughes, Hughes Development
Kathy Kleinbaum, City of Oakland
Jack Limber, San Diego Association of Governments
Gene Myers, New Town Development, Denver
Professor Arthur C. Nelson, Virginia Tech
Professor Peter Newman, Western Australia Sustainability Roundtable,
Perth, Australia
Theresa O’Donnell, City of Dallas
Shelley Poticha, Reconnecting America
Professor John Renne, The University of New Orleans
Bill Sirois, RTD, Denver
Ken Snapp, New Jersey Port Authority
Professor Mike Stepner, New School of Architecture and Design, San Diego
Marilee Utter, Citiventures, Denver
Jack Wierzenski, Dallas Area Rapid Transit

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OPENING REMARKS - Phase I
It’s TIME for a Sophisticated and coordinated tod initiative
With the passage of the FasTracks ballot measure in November of 2004 the opportunity and challenge of TOD now confronts us and the time for serious dialogue and planning has come.

We have tried over the years to keep abreast of the rapidly changing TOD field and have had many conversations with people in metro Denver and around the country who are involved in development near transit stations.

There is a strong indication from other parts of the country that absent a sophisticated and coordinated effort, the potential for successful implementation of transit oriented development (TOD) at FasTracks station sites could be severely reduced.

The Federal Transit Administration reports that of the 3,300 transit stops in the United States, only 100 actually have successful TOD activities.

Bob Dunphy, Senior Fellow, Urban Land Institute, wrote after the election, in response to a question about why places like Dallas, and even Washington D.C. have not done as much as hoped. “It has taken us a while since the irrational exuberance of the first modern transit stations in the United States to begin to see some of the first Toronto style developments, and in fairness most new transit agencies still do not get it,” he stated.

FasTracks is about creating new housing, residential and office communities; preserving open space, making it possible for people to have access to jobs, reducing congestion and improving air quality. Thankfully, the voters of the Denver region understood the linkage between transportation investment and these vexing problems and said yes to one of the largest public investment initiatives this state has ever seen.

The burden now rests with the local governments, the development community, neighborhood organizations, nonprofit agencies and other stakeholders to achieve the vision that was the
promise of FasTracks.

Nothing will be more valuable to that end than the compilation and distribution of solid, factual information about what it takes to succeed and how easily such efforts fail.

The Invasion of the TRUFFLEs begins to meet this need for good information. It helps make the case for a new market for development of this kind and begins the process of identifying the complex weave of factors that will determine the success or failure of this metro area’s move toward TOD.

Peak Public Relations and Market InfoMania developed this report to help expand the TOD discussion. Phase I, which follows, is a reader’s digest version of a mountain of printed information about the topic. This document is a useful addition to the TOD toolbox as the regional dialogue about our future builds. Phase II, an executive summary based on formatted interviews with 30 thought leaders and numerous informal conversations adds more valuable insights about what has worked and not worked in other parts of the country.

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• Singles and couples without children:
  
  - Adult roommates, same-sex couples, married couples without children, and career-driven singles currently comprise most of the home buying public.
  
  - Singles and couples without children each outnumber “traditional family” households in the United States and their growth will outpace “traditional family” households by a factor of 10 through 2025.
  
  - The two groups account for 2/3 of the projected demand for TOD housing and represent an additional 20 million households nationwide by the year 2025.
  
• Seniors:
  - There will be 71 million people over 65 years of age by 2030,
  twice as many as in the year 2000.
  
  - According to AARP, 71% of older households want to live
  within walking distance of transit stations.
  
• African-Americans, Asians and Hispanics:
  - More likely to use public transit or to walk than are non-Hispanics.
  
  - Will increase by 64 million people between by 2020 to 146 million.

The TRUFFLE Lifestyle is a busy lifestyle centered on community, convenience and connectedness.
According to Yankelovich, a national research firm that studies
consumer trends, people attracted to higher density urban areas,
young and old:

• Consider home “command central” for social and entertainment activities.
  
• Seek connectedness with family, friends and neighbors.
  
• Want an “urban” experience.
  
• Desire to be within walking distance of, or connected by transit to, recreation, culture, entertainment and work.
  
• Consider themselves to be “trendy,” and want to live in a place that
  is also considered to be “trendy.”
  

The growing demand for “in town” living is being driven by what Yankelovich describes as “hiving.” According to Yankelovich, “hivers”
share the following characteristics:

• They believe there are real advantages to being part of
  a larger community.
  
• They would like to have more people in their community
  on whom they could rely.
  
• They wish they had more contact with people in their community.
  

Ensure Individual TODs Are interconnected
to the community
Consistent with the TRUFFLE desire to be connected,the most successful TODs in the world have developed into systems of origins and destinations “like pearls on a necklace” which provide convenience and connectedness down the line.

Furthermore, each station must be connected to its surrounding community.

• Bernick and Cervero (1996) suggest that TOD success is dependent on the creation of a “transit metropolis,” meaning a sufficient number of TODs having balanced or special uses that are connected and allow for efficient rail travel with bi-directional flows.
  
• World class transit metropolises such as Stockholm, London, Munich, Copenhagen and Curitiba, Brazil have all created systems of origins and destinations where transit ridership
  is nearly equal between peak and off-peak hours.
  
• A few U.S. cities have experienced success creating systems of origins and destinations. In Arlington County, Virginia, for example, considered to be “the most successful TOD
  success story of the past 30 years” by the Federal Transit Administration, each station has taken on a specialized function.
  - Rosslyn, Ballston and Crystal City serve as business centers.
  
  - Court House emerged as a governmental center.
  
  - Pentagon City has become a regional shopping center.
  
  - Clarendon functions as an urban village with shops and restaurants.
  
  - Virginia Square has a cultural and education focus.
  

Recognize the TOD Opportunity
If you are still uncertain about the benefits of understanding TODs and TRUFFLEs who will populate them, consider these projections. According to Reconnecting America’s Report, Hidden in Plain Sight:

• Demand for high-density housing in TODs is growing and expected to exceed supply by the year 2025.
  - Nationally: 14.6 million households are headed to TODs.
  
  - Metro Denver: 88,000 households will want to locate in a TOD.
  
  - There will be approximately 4,000 stations nationally by 2025, with an average of 2,100 new households per station.
  
• Using a conservative estimate of $100,000 per unit, estimated TOD residential development alone is valued at:
  - $1.5 trillion nationally
  
  - $8.8 billion in Metro Denver
  

Establish a Shared Community Vision or risk failure
While TRUFFLEs are creating demand for TODs, the pre-existing community surrounding TODs may fight the development if not brought into the planning process early.

According to research, transit-oriented districts that have not involved the community in visioning or a community planning process run the risk of backlash from the community regarding higher densities, increased localized traffic congestion around TODs, dwelling unit diversity and “governmentally imposed” efforts to restrict single occupant automobile travel.

A classic example is the Pleasant Hill BART station in the San Francisco Bay Area.

Development stalled in 1995 due to backlash from the surrounding community, despite a proposal that fully complied with the area’s land use plan. With the completion of a successful charrette process in 2002, a second-generation TOD is moving through the approval process.

One developer quoted by the Federal Transit Administration (FTA) in their Report 102 stated that “the most important factor for his firm in deciding whether to undertake a project is whether the community has gone through a visioning or community-planning process that expresses the kind of development most desired.” Once such plans have been completed it makes his job much easier by creating a “margin of certainty.”

Incorporate the 4Ds into TOD planning: density, diversity, design and distance.
A wealth of information is available in the literature regarding the components of successful transit-oriented districts. Emphasis is placed on population and employment densities; diversity in terms of mixed use vs. single-use centers; design of streets, especially in the creation of pedestrian friendly environments and the impact distance between residences/employment centers and transit stations has on ridership. These components – density, diversity, design and distance – are referred to as the 4 Ds.

• Density
  - This is the “most important” land-based predictor of ridership rates, according to a 1992 study of 27 transit-based housing projects in California.
  
  - Doubling of density is associated with nearly a 60% increase in transit boardings, according to a study conducted by Parsons Brinckerhoff Quade & Douglass, Inc.
  
  - Every addition of 100 employees per acre is associated with a 2.2% increase in rail commuting, according The Federal Transit Administration’s Report 102.
  
• Diversity
  - Transit ridership rates at mixed-use suburban employment centers are on average 5-10% higher than they are at single-use employment centers (i.e., offices only) according to Mixed Land Uses and Commuting: Evidence from the American Housing Survey, R. Cervero, 1996.
  
• Design
  - Grid-like street patterns and pedestrian-friendly designs have been associated with transit-usage levels that are as much as 20% higher than usage levels at typical suburban subdivision designs according to Built Environments and Mode Choice: Toward a Normative Framework, R. Cervero, 2002.
  
• Distance of residence or employment to transit:
  - Commuting by transit fell by around .65% for every 100-foot increase in the distance of a residential site from a Metrorail station portal, according to a study conducted in the